Academic English for International Exams

Writing a paper, recognizing a smell, remembering a phone number, and singing a song are all examples of different functions that require some measure of human memory. The processes of the brain have puzzled and intrigued scientists for years. Many have sought to understand how the memory works. After years of study, research shows that memory is recorded and processed by neurons found in the brain.

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system. These cells comprise the core components of the brain and act as the processing and transmission centers for the body. They are the way the rest of the body communicates with the brain and are highly specialized in nature. Some neurons in the brain are capable of signaling and connecting with thousands of other cells. Others receive many signals, but only send out one or two. A synapse is essentially a gap between neurons that serves as the link between them. These neurons transmit information across the synapse in the form of an electrical impulse. It is within the action of these neurons that memories are created.

Memory is the ability to store, retain, and retrieve information. For the brain to record memories, it requires a simultaneous and coordinated activation of neuron receptors at the synapses. For example, a child knows not to touch hot objects from a previous experience of being burned. When he first touched a hot stovetop, the pain signal from the skin on his hand along with the view from his retina reached the brain at the same time, forming a memory. He refers to that memory each time he sees a hot object, remembering the consequences of touching something hot. Thus, the signals sent to the neurons in the brain formed a specific and useful memory.

One researcher has studied the basic functions of memory, finding that individual memories are "burned onto" receptors that are constantly in motion around nerve synapses. A) ■ The synapses allow signals to travel through the brain, and often the receptors containing memories are lost or escape from the synapses. B) ■ When this occurs, a specific set of molecules catches the loose receptors and takes them to a recycling plant of sorts, where they are reprocessed and then returned intact to the synapse. C) ■ When the receptors are not recycled, there is a gradual loss of synaptic function and, subsequently, a reduced cognitive ability. These findings may prove useful in understanding memory loss as well as neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's and learning disorders like autism. D) ■

A different group of scientists has performed a study on the specific connection between memory and neurons. The study showed that when a person learns something and then recalls what was learned, the same neurons used in the original experience are triggered. It actually reintroduces the same emotions felt when the memory was formed. Additionally, memories are most likely stored in neuron subgroups. Those neurons are activated in response to various sensory experiences that prompt: a memory. This discovery shows precisely which circuits are active during formation of a specific memory. Whereas researchers previously knew that neurons existed, they now understand more comprehensively how they work.

This study was done on a set of mice that contained a specific gene that had been altered for study. In essence, the scientists genetically tagged, or marked, individual neurons within each mouse's brain and noted when the neurons were activated within a given time frame. They reasoned that fear was a natural and necessary emotion in survival and thus was a valid emotion that mice experience. The technology allowed scientists to record and measure neuron activity along with certain memories. The mice showed that the same neurons activated during fear conditioning are reactivated during memory 'retrieval.

Now that researchers have found a link between neurons and memory formation, the technique can be applied in other settings. The procedure could help physicians discover how medications work in the brain. Until now, physicians have had trouble evaluating the effects of antidepressants on patients because each patient can react differently to a medication. Antidepressants that work for one individual may not work for another. Often, physicians can measure the effects of antidepressants on a patient only after months of observation. This new genetic tagging technology would allow physicians to evaluate treatment by comparing how a patient's brain works at two different times during, treatment, noting how and where the drug affects specific neurons. This would allow physicians to evaluate treatment options more quickly and accurately.

Writing a paper, recognizing a smell, remembering a phone number, and singing a song are all examples of different functions that require some measure of human memory. The processes of the brain have puzzled and intrigued scientists for years. Many have sought to understand how the memory works. After years of study, research shows that memory is recorded and processed by neurons found in the brain.

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system. These cells comprise the core components of the brain and act as the processing and transmission centers for the body. They are the way the rest of the body communicates with the brain and are highly specialized in nature. Some neurons in the brain are capable of signaling and connecting with thousands of other cells. Others receive many signals, but only send out one or two. A synapse is essentially a gap between neurons that serves as the link between them. These neurons transmit information across the synapse in the form of an electrical impulse. It is within the action of these neurons that memories are created.

Memory is the ability to store, retain, and retrieve information. For the brain to record memories, it requires a simultaneous and coordinated activation of neuron receptors at the synapses. For example, a child knows not to touch hot objects from a previous experience of being burned. When he first touched a hot stovetop, the pain signal from the skin on his hand along with the view from his retina reached the brain at the same time, forming a memory. He refers to that memory each time he sees a hot object, remembering the consequences of touching something hot. Thus, the signals sent to the neurons in the brain formed a specific and useful memory.

One researcher has studied the basic functions of memory, finding that individual memories are "burned onto" receptors that are constantly in motion around nerve synapses. A) ■ The synapses allow signals to travel through the brain, and often the receptors containing memories are lost or escape from the synapses. B) ■ When this occurs, a specific set of molecules catches the loose receptors and takes them to a recycling plant of sorts, where they are reprocessed and then returned intact to the synapse. C) ■ When the receptors are not recycled, there is a gradual loss of synaptic function and, subsequently, a reduced cognitive ability. These findings may prove useful in understanding memory loss as well as neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's and learning disorders like autism. D) ■

A different group of scientists has performed a study on the specific connection between memory and neurons. The study showed that when a person learns something and then recalls what was learned, the same neurons used in the original experience are triggered. It actually reintroduces the same emotions felt when the memory was formed. Additionally, memories are most likely stored in neuron subgroups. Those neurons are activated in response to various sensory experiences that prompt a memory. This discovery shows precisely which circuits are active during formation of a specific memory. Whereas researchers previously knew that neurons existed, they now understand more comprehensively how they work.

This study was done on a set of mice that contained a specific gene that had been altered for study. In essence, the scientists genetically tagged, or marked, individual neurons within each mouse's brain and noted when the neurons were activated within a given time frame. They reasoned that fear was a natural and necessary emotion in survival and thus was a valid emotion that mice experience. The technology allowed scientists to record and measure neuron activity along with certain memories. The mice showed that the same neurons activated during fear conditioning are reactivated during memory 'retrieval.

Now that researchers have found a link between neurons and memory formation, the technique can be applied in other settings. The procedure could help physicians discover how medications work in the brain. Until now, physicians have had trouble evaluating the effects of antidepressants on patients because each patient can react differently to a medication. Antidepressants that work for one individual may not work for another. Often, physicians can measure the effects of antidepressants on a patient only after months of observation. This new genetic tagging technology would allow physicians to evaluate treatment by comparing how a patient's brain works at two different times during, treatment, noting how and where the drug affects specific neurons. This would allow physicians to evaluate treatment options more quickly and accurately.

Writing a paper, recognizing a smell, remembering a phone number, and singing a song are all examples of different functions that require some measure of human memory. The processes of the brain have puzzled and intrigued scientists for years. Many have sought to understand how the memory works. After years of study, research shows that memory is recorded and processed by neurons found in the brain.

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system. These cells comprise the core components of the brain and act as the processing and transmission centers for the body. They are the way the rest of the body communicates with the brain and are highly specialized in nature. Some neurons in the brain are capable of signaling and connecting with thousands of other cells. Others receive many signals, but only send out one or two. A synapse is essentially a gap between neurons that serves as the link between them. These neurons transmit information across the synapse in the form of an electrical impulse. It is within the action of these neurons that memories are created.

Memory is the ability to store, retain, and retrieve information. For the brain to record memories, it requires a simultaneous and coordinated activation of neuron receptors at the synapses. For example, a child knows not to touch hot objects from a previous experience of being burned. When he first touched a hot stovetop, the pain signal from the skin on his hand along with the view from his retina reached the brain at the same time, forming a memory. He refers to that memory each time he sees a hot object, remembering the consequences of touching something hot. Thus, the signals sent to the neurons in the brain formed a specific and useful memory.

One researcher has studied the basic functions of memory, finding that individual memories are "burned onto" receptors that are constantly in motion around nerve synapses. A) ■ The synapses allow signals to travel through the brain, and often the receptors containing memories are lost or escape from the synapses. B) ■ When this occurs, a specific set of molecules catches the loose receptors and takes them to a recycling plant of sorts, where they are reprocessed and then returned intact to the synapse. C) ■ When the receptors are not recycled, there is a gradual loss of synaptic function and, subsequently, a reduced cognitive ability. These findings may prove useful in understanding memory loss as well as neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's and learning disorders like autism. D) ■

A different group of scientists has performed a study on the specific connection between memory and neurons. The study showed that when a person learns something and then recalls what was learned, the same neurons used in the original experience are triggered. It actually reintroduces the same emotions felt when the memory was formed. Additionally, memories are most likely stored in neuron subgroups. Those neurons are activated in response to various sensory experiences that prompt: a memory. This discovery shows precisely which circuits are active during formation of a specific memory. Whereas researchers previously knew that neurons existed, they now understand more comprehensively how they work.

This study was done on a set of mice that contained a specific gene that had been altered for study. In essence, the scientists genetically tagged, or marked, individual neurons within each mouse's brain and noted when the neurons were activated within a given time frame. They reasoned that fear was a natural and necessary emotion in survival and thus was a valid emotion that mice experience. The technology allowed scientists to record and measure neuron activity along with certain memories. The mice showed that the same neurons activated during fear conditioning are reactivated during memory 'retrieval.

Now that researchers have found a link between neurons and memory formation, the technique can be applied in other settings. The procedure could help physicians discover how medications work in the brain. Until now, physicians have had trouble evaluating the effects of antidepressants on patients because each patient can react differently to a medication. Antidepressants that work for one individual may not work for another. Often, physicians can measure the effects of antidepressants on a patient only after months of observation. This new genetic tagging technology would allow physicians to evaluate treatment by comparing how a patient's brain works at two different times during, treatment, noting how and where the drug affects specific neurons. This would allow physicians to evaluate treatment options more quickly and accurately.

Writing a paper, recognizing a smell, remembering a phone number, and singing a song are all examples of different functions that require some measure of human memory. The processes of the brain have puzzled and intrigued scientists for years. Many have sought to understand how the memory works. After years of study, research shows that memory is recorded and processed by neurons found in the brain.

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system. These cells comprise the core components of the brain and act as the processing and transmission centers for the body. They are the way the rest of the body communicates with the brain and are highly specialized in nature. Some neurons in the brain are capable of signaling and connecting with thousands of other cells. Others receive many signals, but only send out one or two. A synapse is essentially a gap between neurons that serves as the link between them. These neurons transmit information across the synapse in the form of an electrical impulse. It is within the action of these neurons that memories are created.

Memory is the ability to store, retain, and retrieve information. For the brain to record memories, it requires a simultaneous and coordinated activation of neuron receptors at the synapses. For example, a child knows not to touch hot objects from a previous experience of being burned. When he first touched a hot stovetop, the pain signal from the skin on his hand along with the view from his retina reached the brain at the same time, forming a memory. He refers to that memory each time he sees a hot object, remembering the consequences of touching something hot. Thus, the signals sent to the neurons in the brain formed a specific and useful memory.

One researcher has studied the basic functions of memory, finding that individual memories are "burned onto" receptors that are constantly in motion around nerve synapses. A) ■ The synapses allow signals to travel through the brain, and often the receptors containing memories are lost or escape from the synapses. B) ■ When this occurs, a specific set of molecules catches the loose receptors and takes them to a recycling plant of sorts, where they are reprocessed and then returned intact to the synapse. C) ■ When the receptors are not recycled, there is a gradual loss of synaptic function and, subsequently, a reduced cognitive ability. These findings may prove useful in understanding memory loss as well as neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's and learning disorders like autism. D) ■

A different group of scientists has performed a study on the specific connection between memory and neurons. The study showed that when a person learns something and then recalls what was learned, the same neurons used in the original experience are triggered. It actually reintroduces the same emotions felt when the memory was formed. Additionally, memories are most likely stored in neuron subgroups. Those neurons are activated in response to various sensory experiences that prompt: a memory. This discovery shows precisely which circuits are active during formation of a specific memory. Whereas researchers previously knew that neurons existed, they now understand more comprehensively how they work.

This study was done on a set of mice that contained a specific gene that had been altered for study. In essence, the scientists genetically tagged, or marked, individual neurons within each mouse's brain and noted when the neurons were activated within a given time frame. They reasoned that fear was a natural and necessary emotion in survival and thus was a valid emotion that mice experience. The technology allowed scientists to record and measure neuron activity along with certain memories. The mice showed that the same neurons activated during fear conditioning are reactivated during memory 'retrieval.

Now that researchers have found a link between neurons and memory formation, the technique can be applied in other settings. The procedure could help physicians discover how medications work in the brain. Until now, physicians have had trouble evaluating the effects of antidepressants on patients because each patient can react differently to a medication. Antidepressants that work for one individual may not work for another. Often, physicians can measure the effects of antidepressants on a patient only after months of observation. This new genetic tagging technology would allow physicians to evaluate treatment by comparing how a patient's brain works at two different times during, treatment, noting how and where the drug affects specific neurons. This would allow physicians to evaluate treatment options more quickly and accurately.

Writing a paper, recognizing a smell, remembering a phone number, and singing a song are all examples of different functions that require some measure of human memory. The processes of the brain have puzzled and intrigued scientists for years. Many have sought to understand how the memory works. After years of study, research shows that memory is recorded and processed by neurons found in the brain.

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system. These cells comprise the core components of the brain and act as the processing and transmission centers for the body. They are the way the rest of the body communicates with the brain and are highly specialized in nature. Some neurons in the brain are capable of signaling and connecting with thousands of other cells. Others receive many signals, but only send out one or two. A synapse is essentially a gap between neurons that serves as the link between them. These neurons transmit information across the synapse in the form of an electrical impulse. It is within the action of these neurons that memories are created.

Memory is the ability to store, retain, and retrieve information. For the brain to record memories, it requires a simultaneous and coordinated activation of neuron receptors at the synapses. For example, a child knows not to touch hot objects from a previous experience of being burned. When he first touched a hot stovetop, the pain signal from the skin on his hand along with the view from his retina reached the brain at the same time, forming a memory. He refers to that memory each time he sees a hot object, remembering the consequences of touching something hot. Thus, the signals sent to the neurons in the brain formed a specific and useful memory.

One researcher has studied the basic functions of memory, finding that individual memories are "burned onto" receptors that are constantly in motion around nerve synapses. A) ■ The synapses allow signals to travel through the brain, and often the receptors containing memories are lost or escape from the synapses. B) ■ When this occurs, a specific set of molecules catches the loose receptors and takes them to a recycling plant of sorts, where they are reprocessed and then returned intact to the synapse. C) ■ When the receptors are not recycled, there is a gradual loss of synaptic function and, subsequently, a reduced cognitive ability. These findings may prove useful in understanding memory loss as well as neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's and learning disorders like autism. D) ■

A different group of scientists has performed a study on the specific connection between memory and neurons. The study showed that when a person learns something and then recalls what was learned, the same neurons used in the original experience are triggered. It actually reintroduces the same emotions felt when the memory was formed. Additionally, memories are most likely stored in neuron subgroups. Those neurons are activated in response to various sensory experiences that prompt: a memory. This discovery shows precisely which circuits are active during formation of a specific memory. Whereas researchers previously knew that neurons existed, they now understand more comprehensively how they work.

This study was done on a set of mice that contained a specific gene that had been altered for study. In essence, the scientists genetically tagged, or marked, individual neurons within each mouse's brain and noted when the neurons were activated within a given time frame. They reasoned that fear was a natural and necessary emotion in survival and thus was a valid emotion that mice experience. The technology allowed scientists to record and measure neuron activity along with certain memories. The mice showed that the same neurons activated during fear conditioning are reactivated during memory 'retrieval.

Now that researchers have found a link between neurons and memory formation, the technique can be applied in other settings. The procedure could help physicians discover how medications work in the brain. Until now, physicians have had trouble evaluating the effects of antidepressants on patients because each patient can react differently to a medication. Antidepressants that work for one individual may not work for another. Often, physicians can measure the effects of antidepressants on a patient only after months of observation. This new genetic tagging technology would allow physicians to evaluate treatment by comparing how a patient's brain works at two different times during, treatment, noting how and where the drug affects specific neurons. This would allow physicians to evaluate treatment options more quickly and accurately.