Academic English for International Exams

Moral Behavior

The dictionary defines morality as "being in accord with standards of right or good conduct". The argument over whether our moral behavior is innate or whether it is developed by our environment and culture has been raging for ages. Many people feel morality is based on reason, while others feel it comes from religion or one's own spirituality. Biologists believe that humans' tendency to obey the Golden Rule – "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you" – is a product of evolution.

At first, moral behavior seems to oppose the rules of Charles Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest and natural selection. However, researchers in the field of biology feel that as animals evolved to live in groups, the propensity to look only after one's own needs had to fade in order for a group mentality to emerge. To ensure the group's success as a whole, every member had to look out for the interests of the majority, a concept known as utilitarianism. This is a system of beliefs based on what does the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

A researcher named Jonathan Haidt at the University of Virginia believes that morality is driven by two separate mindsets – one ancient and one modern. Dr. Haidt declares that the human mind is unaware of the distinction between the two. The ancient mental system is based on the emotion behind moral behaviors, which is a type of intuitive sense of what is right and wrong that evolved before language developed. These are the "gut reactions" people experience in tough situations that call for quick action. The more modern system of thought came with the development of language, as people became able to express verbally why something was right or wrong. The two work together when we are put in morally compromising situations. When confronted with a moral dilemma, one's intuition immediately decides what is right or wrong. Rational thought and judgment about the morality of an issue follow the decision that one's emotional reaction already made.

Dr. Haidt identified five areas of moral conduct that are common in most countries and systems throughout the world, and he describes these as the foundation for all moral behavior. These moral components conceptualize how people treat others and what is important in being part of a group. Regardless of their background, religion, socioeconomic status, or educational level, Dr. Haidt found that the majority of people hold to these moral concepts. The first moral concept is the prevention of harm. Generally, people believe that it is wrong to harm another human being or animal for cruel and needless reasons. The second moral concept is fairness, which holds that all people should be treated fairly. For instance, people should treat the poor in the same manner as the wealthy, and the weak the same as the strong. The third moral concept is loyalty to one's group. This entails a strong devotion to the values of the group as a whole. People with strong loyalties believe that adherence to the laws of society is important because it upholds the integrity of that society. The idea of loyalty is closely interwoven with the fourth moral foundation: respect for authority. People who value authority believe in the strength of a governing body and a strong hierarchy with established roles and rules. The fifth concept involves upholding high standards of purity. This deals with the way that members of a group view their bodies. The idea of purity comes into play in the standards of cleanliness in society. Daily hygiene routines, eating food that has not been contaminated in some way, and burial rules and rituals fall into this category.

Dr. Haidt's research concludes that these moral concepts are inherent in our physical makeup and are learned behaviors, reinforced by our environments from a very early age. The five moral foundations are interpreted differently from society to society, and people rate them differently in order of importance. While morality may take different forms across the many different cultures of the world, it remains true that the basic task of morality, restraining selfishness, is a part of all humanity's moral behavior.

Ancient Angkor

In the regions of Southeast Asia dwell the remains of an era that far exceeded its time in developments and industrialization. This ancient city, which was mysteriously deserted in the 15^th century, is known as Angkor. Located in Cambodia, Angkor was established in 802 CE as the seat of the Khmer Empire. Khmer was the largest continuous empire in Southeast Asia. Its main city of Angkor grew and developed until it was abandoned in the year 1431. Many historians theorize as to why it was abandoned, but the mystery remains.

Angkor was a city of power, industry, architecture, and cultural unity, which is why speculation surrounds its decline. The ancient Khmer city stretched over an area of nearly 120 square miles, comparable to present-day Los Angeles. Each successive ruler to the throne brought significant additions that diversified the territory. One ruler is known for constructing a baray, a massive water reservoir. Another built the imposing Angkor Wat, a temple of great proportions that survived the city's demise and exists today as a Buddhist temple. Along with over seventy other temples in the region, Angkor was home to an expansive waterworks of marked ingenuity when nothing of its kind existed in the world. The civilization was structured around the Mekong River. Intricate and sophisticated irrigation systems were fashioned to transport water to people and fields in all parts of the city, including those removed from the central water source. For this, the city became known as the "Hydraulic City". The people of Angkor were led by an extensive court system, made up of religious and secular nobles as well as artisans, fishermen, rice farmers, soldiers, and elephant keepers. The civilization was guarded by an army transported by elephants and ruled by shrewd and powerful kings. Yet after 600 years of existence, an abandoned shell was all that remained.

The land, buildings, and architecture were reclaimed by the surrounding forest regions until the 19th century, when French archaeologists discovered the remains and began restoring sites in the great city of Angkor. Since then, theories have evolved over time relating to the death of Angkor's civilization. The first theory states that the city fell because of war. The last two centuries of Angkor's existence showed a decline in the Khmer Empire's population and power. Ongoing wars with neighboring Thailand had devastated the nation. In 1431, attackers from Thai nations invaded and looted Angkor, leaving it desolate and vacant. Continuous war with Thailand culminating in a final attack on the city could have weakened the empire and led to the city's demise.

Another theory states that a change in religion led to the country's downfall. The Khmer Empire had predominately been a Hindu nation, and the people were unified in their religion. Jayavarman VII, acclaimed as the greatest of Angkor's kings, took the throne in 1181 CE. He instituted a change in religion from Hinduism to Mahayana Buddhism. This action subsequently could have destroyed the unity of the people and the overall foundation of the empire.

Natural disaster is another feasible possibility for the scattering of people from the Angkor region. Historians say earthquakes, floods, and drastic climate changes would have been capable of stripping Angkor of its people. One researcher hypothesized that the city suffered from a lack of water due to the transition from the medieval warm period to the little ice age. Others dismiss this idea.

However, a recently developed theory built on the work of French archaeologist Bernard-Philippe Groslier may have shed the most light on Angkor's demise. The theory suggests that the Angkorian civilization was "defined, sustained, and ultimately overwhelmed by over-exploitation and the environmental impacts of a complex water-management network". Its vast waterworks proved too great for the city to manage. Also, supplying such a massive empire with water had adverse effects on the environment. Ecological problems included deforestation, topsoil degradation, and erosion due in part to> clearing vegetation for cropland. Thus, the city inadvertently brought about its own environmental collapse.

With the use of aerial photography and high-resolution, ground-sensing radar, researchers were able to support Groslier's theory with images that complete existing topographical maps. The radar detected surface structures as well as subtle variances in surface vegetation and soil moisture. This proved that environmental erosion had occurred. The combined images and ground-based investigations further revealed that Angkor was a victim of its own industrial ingenuity, a city ahead of its time and vulnerable to its own power.

Magnetars

In 1979, scientists detected a sudden spike in gamma rays that had never before been experienced. Over the next several years, scientists detected that the same unidentified celestial body sent out powerful bursts intermittently. Scientists struggled to determine what was causing these large bursts. They theorized that whatever it was, it had to have a super-strong magnetic field in order to release the amount of energy that it did. By the time another burst was detected in 1998, scientists had come up with an explanation to explain this strange anomaly. The source of these large bursts was termed a magnetar.

A magnetar is defined as a type of neutron star that possesses the strongest magnetic field of anything in space. A refrigerator magnet measures 100 Gauss while the Earth's magnetic field is.5 Gauss. A magnetar measures an amazing 1016 Gauss, making it at least one hundred trillion times (100,000,000,000,000) as powerful as Earth's magnetic field. Occasionally, these magnetars will experience sudden "bursts" and hurl bright flashes of gamma rays into space. Not much is known about the mechanisms that cause these magnetar "bursts", except that they result from the instability of the star's powerful magnetic field. One theory speculates that the unstable magnetic field causes the star's crust to fold and crack, further disrupting the star's magnetic field and generating massive waves that release large amounts of gamma rays into space.

Although the actual theory was proposed in 1992, magnetars have not yet been categorized as a recognized major type of star. A magnetar is, however, classified as a subtype of neutron star. A neutron star is formed when a massive star dies by collapsing into a supernova or stellar explosion. The mass of a neutron star is greater than the mass of the sun, but is contained in a star with a diameter of only ten to fifteen miles, about the size of Manhattan Island in New York. This extremely dense star is composed mostly of neutrons and has a very strong magnetic field. A magnetar has a magnetic field one thousand times stronger than any other type of neutron star. This gives it an extraordinary amount of power for such a tiny star.

Normal magnetars can generate the amount of energy in one second that it takes the sun a year to produce. However, the magnetar bursts in 1979 and 1998 were abnormal even for magnetars because they were approximately one thousand times brighter than a normal magnetar. In fact, during the brief period of these outbursts, the magnetars were brighter than supernovas. The energy that radiates from supernovas in the short period between when they explode and when they fade is equal to the amount of energy the sun will radiate over ten billion years. Yet the two abnormally strong magnetars of 1979 and 1998 surpassed supernovas in both brightness and energy. Magnetars are also unique because they produce multiple bursts of light that last only a second, much like a pulsar. A pulsar is a periodic flash of light from a star that is sending a constant beam of energy or light away from itself. Due to the pulsar's rotation, it appears to be blinking on and off as its light sweeps over Earth.

Scientists predict that there are likely millions of magnetars in the galaxy, but only five magnetars have been discovered since the first one was observed in 1979. A recent magnetar was observed in late December 2004. This burst is considered the brightest burst ever. It was only.25 seconds long, but it was powerful enough to overwhelm energy detectors on the many satellites in space so that no energy measurement could be taken. It also interfered with radio communication on Earth. The magnetar was an estimated thirty to fifty thousand light years from Earth. Scientists say that the magnetic force is so strong on a magnetar that it could wipe a credit card clean, or make it ineffective, from a distance of one hundred thousand miles, or about half the distance to the moon.

Although scientists have only been able to detect a few young magnetars, they expect to detect many more in the future. Much about magnetars remains a mystery, and they are a challenge for scientists to study since they appear once every few years and are observable only for a second. Scientists hope to determine more about what causes the instability within a magnetar's magnetic field so that they can better understand these powerful bursts.

Leitmotif

The chords struck in Beethoven's composition for string quartets and the ominous music that fills moviegoers with dread when the villain Darth Vader enters the scene in the Star Wars movies are examples of leitmotifs. First coined as a musical term in 1871, it is defined as the leading theme in a piece of music. Taken from the German words leiten, which means "to lead," and motiv, which means "motive," the word is literally translated as "leading motive." A more modern definition is a dominant recurring theme associated with a person, subject, or idea in a work of art. Leitmotifs are seen across many genres, including music, visual arts, and literature.

A leitmotif is usually a short melody that is repeated throughout the body of a piece of music, though some composers choose to use recurrent chords or percussion rhythms. The use of leitmotifs helps to show congruency within the piece of music and tie the different movements together as a unified whole. The leitmotif usually plays on the emotions of the audience, even if subconsciously, and is a way to convey meaning without words or to take the composition to a different level. Classical music most often comes to mind when leitmotifs are mentioned. They are seen in operas and other dramatic compositions.

A leitmotif cannot be seen in a single song. For instance, the rhythmic background of hip-hop music is not considered a leitmotif because it does not express emotion or work to change the mood of the song. A true leitmotif is more than just a style of music; rather, it occurs several times throughout a composition, expressing certain emotions and binding the entire work together.

The idea of leitmotif can be seen in the music of modern movies, television shows, and even video games. The example of the music played when Darth Vader comes on screen in Star Wars is a more classical example of a leitmotif. Likewise, the eerie sound that is played in the Friday the 13" horror movie series when the murderer is about to take another victim is a leitmotif as well, though not true music. Both signify the presence of a lead character and evoke intense emotion. Television shows usually use leitmotifs from episode to episode. For example, the television series Lost has several leitmotifs that are played at different points in the show. If the actors are climbing or hiking through the thick jungle of the island, the audience hears music that allows it to experience the hard work and time it takes to fight through the dense vegetation. The popular 1990s comedy series Seinfeld uses a rhythmic melody for scene changes during each episode. Video game fans can easily recognize the theme music from the Halo series played at the beginning of each game.

Leitmotif is not confined only to music, but can be seen in visual works of art. For example, Michelangelo is known for incorporating images of the nude male body in many of his most famous works. His sculpture of David and his painting of the Sistine Chapel both exemplify this image. A more modern artist, Thomas Kinkade, is known as the painter of light. Each of his works includes pastel colors and scenes that seem to reflect and even produce light within the painting. He also paints with themes of simplicity in most of his works. Much of his art features cottage-style homes and simplistic gardens and streams that evoke emotions of comfort and nostalgia.

Literature is another art form in which leitmotifs are used. When employed in literature, a leitmotif is seen as a recurring event, object, or character referred to throughout the book. Author James Joyce's book A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man includes themes of the Virgin Mary and Daedalus from Greek mythology to promote unity as the main character matures. John Grisham, a modern-day writer of fiction, includes themes of ethical dilemma and justice throughout his suspenseful thrillers that deal with the US legal system.

Classical music introduced the idea of leitmotifs to the world, but artists took this concept and applied it to other genres as well. The idea of a recurring theme appealed to artists and audiences alike because it conveyed intense emotion and drew the audience into the drama and beauty of the artistic piece. Leitmotifs have influenced how people participate in art, whether through the emotion of the music or through identifying themes within visual art and literature.

Neurons and Human Memory

Writing a paper, recognizing a smell, remembering a phone number, and singing a song are all examples of different functions that require some measure of human memory. The processes of the brain have puzzled and intrigued scientists for years. Many have sought to understand how the memory works. After years of study, research shows that memory is recorded and processed by neurons found in the brain.

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system. These cells comprise the core components of the brain and act as the processing and transmission centers for the body. They are the way the rest of the body communicates with the brain and are highly specialized in nature. Some neurons in the brain are capable of signaling and connecting with thousands of other cells. Others receive many signals, but only send out one or two. A synapse is essentially a gap between neurons that serves as the link between them. These neurons transmit information across the synapse in the form of an electrical impulse. It is within the action of these neurons that memories are created.

Memory is the ability to store, retain, and retrieve information. For the brain to record memories, it requires a simultaneous and coordinated activation of neuron receptors at the synapses. For example, a child knows not to touch hot objects from a previous experience of being burned. When he first touched a hot stovetop, the pain signal from the skin on his hand along with the view from his retina reached the brain at the same time, forming a memory. He refers to that memory each time he sees a hot object, remembering the consequences of touching something hot. Thus, the signals sent to the neurons in the brain formed a specific and useful memory.

One researcher has studied the basic functions of memory, finding that individual memories are "burned onto" receptors that are constantly in motion around nerve synapses. The synapses allow signals to travel through the brain, and often the receptors containing memories are lost or escape from the synapses. When this occurs, a specific set of molecules catches the loose receptors and takes them to a recycling plant of sorts, where they are reprocessed and then returned intact to the synapse. When the receptors are not recycled, there is a gradual loss of synaptic function and, subsequently, a reduced cognitive ability. These findings may prove useful in understanding memory loss as well as neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's and learning disorders like autism.

A different group of scientists has performed a study on the specific connection between memory and neurons. The study showed that when a person learns something and then recalls what was learned, the same neurons used in the original experience are triggered. It actually reintroduces the same emotions felt when the memory was formed. Additionally, memories are most likely stored in neuron subgroups. Those neurons are activated in response to various sensory experiences that prompt: a memory. This discovery shows precisely which circuits are active during formation of a specific memory. Whereas researchers previously knew that neurons existed, they now understand more comprehensively how they work.

This study was done on a set of mice that contained a specific gene that had been altered for study. In essence, the scientists genetically tagged, or marked, individual neurons within each mouse's brain and noted when the neurons were activated within a given time frame. They reasoned that fear was a natural and necessary emotion in survival and thus was a valid emotion that mice experience. The technology allowed scientists to record and measure neuron activity along with certain memories. The mice showed that the same neurons activated during fear conditioning are reactivated during memory 'retrieval.

Now that researchers have found a link between neurons and memory formation, the technique can be applied in other settings. The procedure could help physicians discover how medications work in the brain. Until now, physicians have had trouble evaluating the effects of antidepressants on patients because each patient can react differently to a medication. Antidepressants that work for one individual may not work for another. Often, physicians can measure the effects of antidepressants on a patient only after months of observation. This new genetic tagging technology would allow physicians to evaluate treatment by comparing how a patient's brain works at two different times during, treatment, noting how and where the drug affects specific neurons. This would allow physicians to evaluate treatment options more quickly and accurately.